THIS CAIM IS WITNESS TODAY

OLD TOMBSTONES

Whence comes the custom of erecting a stone over graves? This ancient worldwide tradition most likely originated in the Near East. In desert areas sand can not protect the corpse sufficiently. This is why relatives and friends covered the grave with stones, so as to prevent the body from being the prey of animals (jackals, foxes, hyenas). It was counted a real good deed when passers-by put a stone on the grave. Probably hence the custom that, in Jewish cemeteries, we put a pebble on the grave, instead of flowers. Later the heap of smaller or bigger stones was replaced by a gravestone, which became more and more artistic. This explanation is supported by a story of the Talmud (c.f. Oholot 2,4.).

Other scholars say that marking of graves has a ritual origin. According to ritual laws, men of priests' families (Cohanites) were forbidden to near a corpse. Getting under the same roof with a dead body (e.g. in a mortuary) or stepping over a grave caused impurity. The only exception was the funeral of the nearest relatives. This strict law made necessary to mark the graves, which could be seen afar, so as to prevent passing-by priests from approaching it (at a distance of four cubits = ca. 70-80 inches) accidentally. In case the tombstone was missing or it subsided, the permissible route was marked with lime (Baba Kama 69a.). It is a living custom to pave the middle of the cemetery paths so that Cohanites, visiting their relatives' graves, could see the right way. It is believed that the custom of setting up tombstones is in connection with this. The members of the community were obliged to mark the graves in the last month before spring (Adar) to preserve the "purity" of the priests (Skalim 1,1.). However, we think that this old regulation was meant to conduce the maintenance of the cemetery after the winter period.

The gravestone is usually set up after the year of mourning, on the first anniversary of the funeral (Jahrzeit). The greatest rabbinic scholar of the Middle Ages, Moses Maimonides ( 1138-1204) declared that righteous men should not have a monument over their graves (Hilkhot evel 4,4.). Others believed that the reverence towards the dead demanded for a decent tombstone (Shlomo ben Aderet's Responses 375.). It would have been difficult to forbid in any way this ancient expression of reverence towards the deceased. If we glance over the history of Jewish cemeteries, or examine the gravestones of a single graveyard, we can see that older stones are always simpler, their workmanship is less sophisticated than that of more recent stones. The earlier inscriptions are shorter, plainer, their language is purer and more to the point than those from the l9th and 20th century.

In pious (Chassidic or Orthodox) communities it is strictly observed that inscriptions can only be in Hebrew, though from a long period after the first settlement in Europe we cannot find monuments with Hebrew writing. The Jewish origin of the deceased is shown only by the Hebrew name. In other cases Jewish symbols reveal ethnic background. We know quite early Jewish tombstones from the Roman province Pannonia (Western Hungary) with carvings of Menorahs and other symbols, but Hebrew letters do not appear in this period. On the other hand, the Greek words heis theos ('one God'), translation of the best known Hebrew Biblical prayer, often occur. The first Hebrew inscription in Europe (from 688 A.D.) was found in Narbonne, Southern France. It consists of three words only: shalom al Yisrael, peace for Israel.

The earliest epitaph in Hungary we know about is from 1278. The monument was erected "at the head of Pesach, son of Peter, who returned to eternity". This stone, together with two later ones, was found in Buda, at the site of the Medieval Jewish cemetery, at the juction of Alagút and Pauler Streets. Professor Alexander Scheiber, in his fundamental work, Jewish Inscriptions in Hungary (1983), registered 145 Hebrew inscriptions until 1686, the end of the Turkish invasion, predominantly on tombstones. Non-Hebrew inscriptions show a similar proportion. These facts prove the importance of graveyard monuments as a source of the history of a community.

CEMETERY AND HISTORY

The fate of the stones and cemeteries were always parallel with the fate of the people. When a Jewish community had been abolished in a country or in a region, their cemetery met the same destiny: the tombstones were sold, given away or simply stolen. In Sopron a monastery was built of them, in Ferrara city walls were reinforced with Jewish gravestones. In Buda they were used as building stones without rubbing out the inscriptions, so many of them can be read today. The stones were built in so strongly that they can not be taken out without endangering the whole building. Now these inscriptions can be seen in the gallery of the Carmelite monastery of Buda (5-7-9, Színház Street) and in the stairs of the wine-cellar in "Fehér Galamb" restaurant.

At other times desecration of graves and graveyards foreshadowed the danger threatening the community. For instance, in the Talmudic period Jewish cemeteries had to be guarded, because Zoroastrian Persians often ravaged them: in their faith dead bodies "defiled" land, corpses had to be left under the open sky as feed for birds (c.f. Baba Batra 58a.). In some communities in Italy (e.g. in Ferrara) the word shalom was written into the fresh soil of the grave: so anybody could see that the grave was not desecrated or robbed (J. Lampronti: Pahad Yitzhak s.v. qurah). In the l6th century David ibn Ami Zimra gave an account that Moslims kept stealing more valuable stones from Jewish cemeteries, then, after they had rubbed the inscriptions out, they sold them again, usually to Jews. For this reason it was forbidden to buy used tombstones (Responses of Radbaz 1, 741.).

In 1686, after the recapture of Buda, the soldiers were rewarded with free plunder. They practically besieged the Medieval synagogue and burnt it down. During the archaeological excavations, mutilated and burnt bodies were found in great number. The centuries old remains of these martyrs were interred in the Jewish cemetery of Pest (Rákoskeresztúr), in 1969. In 1944, at a common funeral, the gendarmerie of internal undersecretay László Endre arrested participants, relatives and ecclesiatical persons alike, and carried them off to death innocently. During the first period of the Holocaust, funerals took place in the old cemetery of Buda (Csörsz Street) as long as it was possible. The Chief Rabbi of Szeged and noted botanist Immanuel Löw, who died in the hospital of the ghetto at the age of 90, was buried here: his body was taken here on a dustcart. After the ghetto in Pest had been closed, the dead were buried in the yard of the Dohány Street synagogue. Those who could not be identified or whose relatives did not survive the Holocaust (about 2000 bodies), repose here.

The fate of cemeteries has always been tied to the history of the city. According to the regulation of the Talmud, "the house of the living", was always placed outside the city, at a minimal distance of about 35 yards from the border (Baba Batra 2, 9.). In the course of the growth of the city the cemetery got inside, new buildings surrounded it. This also happened to the cemeteries of other congregations, but Judaism is more strict about the peace of the dead. Moreover, it was more difficult for the Jewish congregation to get new pieces of land. This is why a Jewish morgue or (closed) cemetery, wedged among city houses, can be found more frequently than Christian ones. Opening a new graveyard or extending an old one always depended on the benevolence of authorities. Since these requests were often refused, some Jewish cemeteries are astonishingly crowded. The graves in the famous cemetery of Prague, as it can be seen in several photos in this book, are practically layered above one another: hardly had one monument sunk into the ground when a next one was erected above it. A similar graveyard, enclosed with houses, but far less known, is the old cemetery of Buda (Csörsz Street). The small piece of land, not larger than a court, holds 1350 tombs. One picture shows the Jewish cemetery of Abaújszántó: the stones, closely beside and behind each other, are leaning forward, like devout Jews while praying...

The opening of a new cemetery was often made necessary by minor or major epidemics. As old cemeteries were enclosed with buildings, authorities ordered the communities to found a new one, or they themselves designated its place. After the epidemics the community went on using the new graveyard, as they did in Szeged after the cholera epidemic of 1832. At other times the temporary burying site had to be vacated, though rabbis could not accept the stirring of graves (Sanhedrin 46a.). However, the venerable Chief Rabbi of Pozsony, Moses Scheiber wrote that bodies were to be exhumed from these temporary cemeteries unless they were given to the community and surrounded with a wall, otherwise they could have been disinterred without consent. Given the chance, bodies should be put to a final resting place, and it is a merit to fulfil this religious obligation (Hatam Sofer 334.).

THE TOMBS OF THE ANCESTORS

In the opening scene of Stefan Zweig's excellent novel, Die verborgene Leuchter, roman Jews observe the anniversary of the destruction of Jerusalem in the cemetery. They are sitting on the ground, among the tombs, singing the mourning songs of the loss of the Temple. This is an ancient custom: on days of mourning Jews visited cemeteries in groups. The explanations of this tradition were different among Talmudist masters. Some said this expressed that in front of God the living almost counted among the dead. Others believed that these devout believers hoped the intercession of the dead for mercy (Taanit 47a.). Maybe, it was simply to strengthen mourning, and some said visitors paid respect to those who had no living relatives. It is a living tradition that on days of mourning it is not fit to visit relatives' tombs, visitors only walk around the cemetery reciting prayers.

Apart from this, it is a serious moral and religious obligation to visit ancestors' graves (Hebrew kever avot). Religious Jews often travel thousands of kilometres to see their relatives' tombs from time to time. This custom is mainly connected with death-anniversaries (Jahrzeit) and the period preceding the autumn holidays (Dreadful Days). Graves, especially those of the honourable, were regarded as sacred as early as in the Talmudic period, pilgrims came with prayers and pleas (Sota 34a.). In Central and Eastern Europe the graves of scholars and rabbis attract the greatest number of visitors. The best known of them is Rabbi Löw of Prague (Yehuda ben Betsalel, 1525-1609), the creator of the golem. Many people visit the grave of Moshe Isserles ( 1525-1572) in Cracow, just like the peculiar sepulchre of the Schreiber (Sofer) rabbinic dynasty in Pozsony, which is now almost under the tram-rails. Many people pay tribute to the tombs of the rabbis of Hunfalva, Máramarossziget, Szatmárnémeti, Nagyvárad, Kolozsvár. In Hungary the Jahrzeits of the rabbis of Sátoraljaújhely, Bodrogkeresztúr, Olaszliszka and Nagykálló are veritable touristic events.

According to Judaic teaching, it is forbidden to use graves and gravestones for any other purpose. The stone is the property of the deceased, and, through him, his body, of the funeral association. A noted rabbi of Cracow even forbade to sit on a gravestone. (Shulhan Arukh Yore Dea 364. § 1. - a note of Moshe Isserles). No one should enter the cemetery bareheaded, pasture animals or collect grass there and run a canal through it. Yet anyone collected grass, it had to be burnt immediately because of the due respect for the dead (Sanhedrin 46a.). This Talmudic regulation explains the ancient custom: when someone leaves the cemetery, he tears some grass then throws it behind his back. He expresses that he takes nothing belonging to the dead (c.f. Smahot 13.). Others believe this symbolic action refers to eternal life, as it is accompanied with these words: "Let them revive as grass comes into leaf again." (Kálmán, Ödön: The Book of Rabbis) This custom can also symbolize the separation of the living and the dead, as in the vernacular of the Talmudic period, in Aramic, a deceased is called bar-minan, 'the one beyond us'. An other, related, custom is when, on leaving the cemetery, believers rinse their hands without saying a blessing. According to traditional belief, a ritual (and hygienic) hand-wash is necessary after dealing with dead bodies and even after visiting graves.

TENT AND PARCHMENT

Jewish cemeteries are usually near the local (Christian) cemetery, but always on a separate plot of land, surrounded with a wall. On entering we first see the mortuary. The ritual washing of the body is done here, and, at most places, it is the site of the funeral ceremony. Before the ceremony the members of the community recite an ancient prayer that recalls the blessing that Moses pronounced before his death. At many places its text decorates the walls of the mortuary. Its traditional title is Tsiduk hadin, and the mortuary is often called Tsiduk hadin-house. The Hebrew expression suggests that the mourner, in spite of his sorrow, accepts divine truth. The Aramic mourning prayer, Kaddish affirms the same thought. The furnishings of the mortuary are simple, made of wood, stone, bone and tin. (Some beautiful, artistic examples can be seen in the Jewish museums of Prague and Budapest.) In some regions the funeral ceremony is performed not in the mortuary but at the house of the deceased. This old custom is still practised, for example, in Makó, where the new Jewish cemetery (in use since the turn of the century) is at a distance of three kilometres from the town, among farmhouses.

In some regions, as in certain Orthodox communities of Hungary, men and women are buried separately. However, at least from the end of the Middle Ages, we know a number of spouses' tombstones in Central and Eastern Europe. This book also contains some fine examples, for example from Göncruszka. Suicides (according to Sulhan Arukh) and children are always buried in separate plots (for premature babies mourners say no prayers). Where the synagogue has not remained or it is not likely to long survive, the monument of the victims of fascism has been placed in the cemetery, near the entrance. There are some outstanding works of art among them, for instance in Kecskemét, where the mortuary of the old, closed cemetery was converted into Hall of Martyrs with good taste. In some Central European cemeteries we can find "soap-graves". It is known that in concentration camps the bodies of those murdered were used for making soap. The bars had the letter RIF on them (Reines Juden-Fleisch = 'pure Jew-flesh'). After the war coreligionists tracked down and bought up these bars of soap and buried them as an act of piety...

In some towns, for instance in Szeged, there are special memorial sepulchres for Torah scrolls and pieces of parchment desecrated, torn and burnt during the reign of the Nazi terror. However, this originates from the ancient reverence for written word. As early as in the antiquity it was forbidden to burn or throw away scrolls out of use. These were collected into a special room called geniza ("hiding place"), which was walled up afterwards. One of the Qumran caves was such a "hiding place" for the Dead Sea Scrolls (2nd c. B.C. - lst c. A.D.) In Europe (in Ashkenazic communities) worn or damaged books, scriptures, parchment scrolls were ritually buried. In Central European Jewish cemeteries one can see such "book-funerals" even today.

The most characteristic and most distinguished part of all Jewish cemeteries is represented by the graves of rabbis. The godly scholars are usually buried in a separate plot. The inscriptions are generally ornamental, more expressive than others. Poetic epitaphs commemorate their knowledge and good deeds, the first letters of the lines form the name of the deceased (acrostic). The sepulchre itself is formed like a tent - especially in Chassidic communities. At other places a tent-roof or a tent-like structure (Hebrew ohel) is raised above the grave. On these tent-like sepulchres there are some small openings, which are slowly filled by pieces of paper with entreaties of believers. They all hope the intercession of the departed rabbi in front of God. These slips (Yiddish quitli) each contain stories, sometimes tragedies, and express absolute faith and confidence.

PEBBLE AND FLOWER

We have already mentioned that plants of the graveyard, according to the Talmud, must not be used in any way. Therefore in traditional Jewish communities trees and bushes of the cemetery are not pruned, grass is not mown, only the paths are paved and maintained. For the visitor this may suggest, usually without reason, untidiness, whereas the aim is the preservation of the natural environment. Moreover, this tradition expresses: it is futile to oppose decay. Some of the photos in this book also suggest this idea. For example, in Késmárk there is a lonely tombstone, looking like the stone tablets of Moses, its inscription has been hollowed by rain. In Abaújszántó a tree has grown together with a tombstone: it can hardly be told which is the tree, which is the stone. In Szendrő a stone has subsided so much that only its upper arch can be seen among plants. In Bártfa plants and a reclined stone nearly absorbed each other.

In Varannó we can see a stone behind two other, with two blessing hands, depicted in a strange, reversed position, as if it were guarding, protecting its abandoned "companions". In Nagymihály a stone has fallen off from among the others: there is nobody to lift it. The cemetery of Hunfalva offers an exceptional sight: outside the village, surrounded with a wall, rising as a pine wood, like an abandoned castle on a hill, like a desolate oasis in the midst of a desert...

According to traditions, visitors do not bring flowers to the cemetery, they only put a pebble on the grave. The more pebbles are on the tomb, the more living is the memory of the deceased. This strange custom can be explained in two ways. The first one has already been mentioned: stone meant

protection against wild animals in the desert. In others' opinion it would be offensive for the dead to bring the symbol of life, so we can only bring a dead thing like a pebble.

"Give flowers to the living,

pebbles to the dead"

reads the brief explanation in the poem of an Austrian poet, Ada Christen, written on a visit to the cemetery of Prague, to the tomb of Rabbi Löw. The poem was translated into Hungarian by writer and archaeologist Ferenc Móra. In the winter of 1932-33 he published a report of the Jewish cemetery of Prague in Magyar Hírlap of Pest. In the climate of forthcoming fascism an attack was launched at him as "he intended to awaken even dead Israelites". The poem was translated as an apt answer since the last stanza reads:

"We Christians have long

forsaken this pagan custom:

we wreath the dead

we'd stoned to death..."

RITUALS OF DEATH

Rav Hamnuna, Talmudist in Babylonia (about 300 A.D.) was visiting a southern city when he heard the sound of a shofar. The sound of the horn-like instrument announced someone's death. To his surprise, people did not stop working. When he asked them why they did not hurry to help at the house of the deceased, they replied that those things are settled by a special body of people. (Moed Katan 27b.). This is the first reference to a Jewish funeral association, which now exists withing almost every community worldwide. They are called Chevra Kadisha ('Holy Society'), and, beside their main activity, they also support orphans, widows, poor and sick persons. In the Middle Ages the membership was hereditary (Responses of Hos, 13, 13.). The traditional annual meeting of the association is held, coupled with a fish-supper, on the seventh day of Adar (February-March), on the anniversary of the birth and death of Moses. (In Budapest the meeting is held on the first day of Adar.)

The members commemorate all those who died in that year. One of the oldest funeral associations of Central Europe, Chevra Kadisha of Prague was founded by Eliezer Ashkenazi in 1564, its constitution was drawn up by the legendary Rabbi Löw.

On the news of someone's death a religious Jew must say: barukh dayan haemet ('Blessed is the just Judge'). Thus he expresses the acquiescence in the loss and God's inevitable judgement. At the death of a close relative he tears his clothes and quotes Job's words: 'The Lord gave and the Lord has taken away; may the name of the Lord be praised." (Job 1:21)

People never liked to tell the relatives about someone's death (c.f. Proverbs 6:18). This is why sad news were made known by symbolic means, like the sounding of the shofar. It is a living custom of Biblical origin (2 Samuel 14:14) to inform neighbours by spilling a glass of water. In the house of the deceased or of close relatives mirrors are covered for seven days: everyone entering the house can understand everything without asking questions. In traditional Hebrew the word "died" is not used anyway, they say "disappeared", "got free" from earthly life, "returned" to his forefathers, etc. In Northeastern Hungary, at early morning awakening, the shammes (sexton) knocked one fewer on doors.

After closing the eyes, the body is put on the ground, a cushion is placed under the head, the body is covered and a candle or an oil lamp is lit at the head. (On Sabbath, as lifting things is forbidden, just like any other work, a piece of bread is held above the body while being put on the ground.) Chevra decided by lot who was to keep vigil. In the Jewish museums of Prague and Budapest one can see such lots. In Biblical times they sent for wailing women (Jeremiah 9:17).

The most important part of the funeral ceremony was the washing of the body (Hebrew tahara, Yiddish taire). The body was placed on an oblique board and was washed with lukewarm water by the employees of Chevra, never by relatives.

"His head is purest gold;

his hair is wavy

and black as a raven.

His eyes are like doves

by the water streams,

washed in milk,

mounted like jewels.

His cheeks are like beds of spice

yielding perfume.

His lips are like lilies

dripping with myrrh.

His arms are rods of gold

set with chrysolite.

His body is like polished ivory

decorated with sapphires.

His legs are pillars of marble

set on bases of pure gold.

His appearance is like Lebanon,

choice as its cedars.

His mouth is sweetness itself;

he is altogether lovely.

This is my lover, this my friend,

O daughters of Jerusalem."

Who would think that these poetic verses of Song of Songs are cited while washing a dead body? But indeed, this is done, for the simple reason of euphemism, to avoid displeasure of those assisting at the rites. Finally the corpse is submerged in water and the words "pure, pure, pure" are uttered in Hebrew. Then the body is dressed in regular white linen clothes. A prayer shawl (tallith) is also put on men, torn at the edge of the coffin, so as to make it unsuitable for its holy function; otherwise the tallith would offend the deceased, who cannot fulfil his religious duties. Under the head, in a small bag, they put some sand, preferably from the Holy Land. The eyes and the mouth are covered with potsherds, and, at some places (e.g. in Paks, Kiskunhalas) a small twig (Yiddish gepeleh) is put between the fingers: be it the guide of the deceased in the other world. The plain board coffin is covered but not nailed. There are gaps on the bottom of the coffin because soil must touch the body. (In most ancient times the coffin was buried without the bottom boards, later this was forbidden by authorities.)

Before the funeral ceremony relatives and friends step to the coffin, put their hands on it and they beg the pardon of the deceased for the case they had offended him in his life. Nowadays this is the time when close relatives tear their clothes, which are not sewn until the end of mourning, i.e. for thirty days. Funeral oration (Hebrew hespedh) represent a special genre of ancient Hebrew literature. David's Lament (2 Samuel 1:17) can be mentioned as an example. In the Talmudic period there stood rostrums in cemeteries, surrounded with seats and standing room (Moed Katan 25-27; Baba Batra 100b.; Brakhot 17-19). The funeral sermon traditionally consisted of three parts: praise of God, consolation of the mourners and moral teaching. The speaker thanked mourners for their compassion in the name of the relatives (Ketubot 8b.; Sanhedrin 46-47). The deceased himself was not praised particularly. The Kaddish, recited by the cantor, always includes the Hebrew name of the dead.

The Hebrew word for the last honours (levayah) literally means 'accompanying'. It is an important religious duty to escort the deceased to the grave. The coffin is carried on shoulders and mourners sing Psalm 91. Richly decorated hearses can be seen at some places (e.g. in Szarvas) but they are never pulled by horses. The Talmud orders that a coffin has to be carried as was the Ark of the Covenant in the old days of Moses. In Hebrew the word aron means both (c.f. Sotah 13b.). If someone, visiting a cemetery, meets a funeral procession, he has to join them for at least three steps. Talmudic master Judah bar Ilay (2nd c. A.D.) declared that Torah study can only be interrupted for the sake of a marriage or a funeral ceremony (Ketuboth 17a.). Izidor Goldberger, Rabbi of Sátoraljaújhely (1876-1944), recorded that during a funeral shops were all closed, the only activity of believers was around the dead (Otzar Yisrael IV. 14-15). On the way to the grave (except on certain semi-holidays) the procession stops three times. The coffin is put down, thus detaining the deceased among themselves for a while, then, singing the Psalms from the beginning, mourners resume their way.

Burial was a general custom as early as the Biblical times. According to the anthology Pirke di-Rabbi (ca. 800 A.D.), the first man learned from a raven how to bury his son Abel, murdered by his brother Cain (chapter 21 ). A hanged man or an enemy soldier also had to be buried decently (c.f. Deuteronomy 21:22, 1 Kings 11:25). lt was one of the greatest benefactions to bury a body found on roadside (Hebrew methmitzvah, Smaheth 4, 29.; Megilah 3b., etc.), as the dead could not return this act of charity. This can also be the source of the legendary motif of the "grateful dead", which also appears in the Bible (c.f. the book of Tobit, on some extent).

As a sign of reverence, the funeral was held on the day of death or next day. This old custom was observed especially in Jerusalem (Avot di-Rabbi Nathan 35.). This was obvious in the East with its hot climate, but the practice was and is similar in other regions, as well as in Hungary. While the coffin is let down into the grave, the final verse of Psalm 91 is sung. As we have already mentioned, in earlier times corpses were often put into the grave without a coffin, so as to fulfil the words of the Scripture: "for dust you are and to dust you will return" (Genesis 3:19). Nowadays this verse is recited when the first clods are thrown into the grave. Preferably mourners themselves bury the coffin, or at least they "help" throwing three shovels of earth each. Children do not throw clods on their parents' grave. After the wooden grave-post is set up, men pray separately. In Orthodox communities women cannot even approach the grave.

Traditionally, the ceremony does not end when the grave has been covered in. On the contrary, this means the beginning of strict mourning of seven days for the close relatives. Near the gate of the cemetery they are seated on the ground (stone, stool), their shoelaces are undone ritually: during the week of mourning they must walk barefoot or in socks. In ancient times relatives wore sackcloth and sprinkled ash on their heads (c.f. Joshua 7:6; Jeremiah 16:6). The final act of the ceremony is when the closest kinsman, in the presence of at least ten other men, after a common prayer, says the Kaddish in the mortuary. Those present line up (Hebrew shurah) to express their compassion. "May the Omnipotent console you, together with other mourners of Zion and Jerusalem", they say. In some places members of Chevra Kadisha prepare a simple repast for the mourners in the cemetery. This "recovery repast" consists of milk loaf and eggs sprinkled with ash. Apart from this mourners fast on the day of the funeral (Moed Katan 27b.).

EPITAPHS

Epitaphs are the most significant parts of the cemeteries and of the tombstones. Stones and inscriptions, even these few examples in this book, reveal a lot about the ancients. Behold, for instance, the human-shaped tombstone from Szécsény. Individual lives appear behind ancient formulae, symbols, motifs. A silent stone can be so talkative...

"The stones of the wall will cry out", we read in the Bible (Habakkuk 2:11). We only have to listen to the sound. Expert eyes and humble consideration will understand the stories told by stones hidden for centuries, by letters worn out, buried, broken throughout hundreds of years. Not only books, stones also have their fate...

"The stones of the wall will cry out" - how much passion and suffering is commemorated by these tombstones. One of the oldest gravestones in Central Europe, the one from Völkermarkt, Austria, tell in its Hebrew inscription that the "generous" man lying underneath had been murdered by stealth in Hungary, in the summer of 1130. Some epitaphs express the sorrow of their authors in exquisite poetry. The stone from Homonna, decorated with a deer, reveals real poetic artistry.

In Central and Eastern European Jewish cemeteries one can find so-called "empty" tombs. Their inscriptions commemorate martyrs, victims, whose relatives could not pay the last honours. The family set up a stone with the name of the lost relative on it, so as to have a "grave" to visit...

"The stones of the wall will cry out". With this book, beyond artistic delight, we would like to call attention to a piece of our past and present: the Jewish cemeteries of Central and Eastern Europe, organic elements of local culture, history and art, but which are little known, and it is feared that they are going to perish.

SIGNS AND SYMBOLS

The Second Commandment forbids portrayal and the worship of "idols", this is why one cannot find statues or photos on tombs - in Orthodox cemeteries not even reliefs. On oldest stones inscription is the only "decoration". Later small signs, engraved motifs (flowers, bines of grapevine) and denominational symbols appear.

Ancient mosaics of synagogues and the fresco of Dura Europos (2nd c. A.D.) prove that Jewish art was limited by "two dimensions" but this did not enfeeble artistic invention, only led it towards more moderate ways of expression. If we really want to understand the purport of these artisans, we have to know the ancient signs and symbols that bring their message to us.

I. SYMBOLS

1. Menorah: a seven-branched candelabrum, certainly the oldest Jewish symbol. Its bough-like structure is related to life-tree motifs. It first appears in the Bible, in the description of the Tabernacle in the desert. The masterpiece was made of pure gold by Bezalel. It stood in the middle of both Temples of Jerusalem (950-587 B.C. and 517 B.C.-70 A.D.). The seven branches symbolize the seven days of the week. It also appears on the coins minted by King Antigonos (40 B.C.). By the Roman period it had become generally known. We can find it on tombstones, gems, oil lamps from Pannonia just as on synagogues, stones, scriptures of medieval and early modern periods. One of our pictures (Piatra Neamt) shows a fine example of art nouveau.

2. Chanukiah: eight-branched candelabrum with an extra candle (shammes-candle). Sometimes it is also called Menorah. It is the symbol of Chanukah, the festival commemorating the victory of the Maccabees and the rededication of the Temple at Jerusalem. When the city was recaptured in 165 B.C., only a tiny bit of oil was found in the Temple, but it burned for eight days. Presumably it was carved in tombstones if the deceased died at Chanukah (in December).

3. Magen David (i.e. David's shield): a six-pointed star, formed by placing two triangles together, one upon the other or interlaced. Its Hebrew name also consists of six letters. The ancient symbol probably derive from India: it represented the heaven and the earth or the meeting of man and woman. In Judaic tradition, the soldiers of King David (reigned 1010-970 B.C.) bore it on their shields or the shields themselves were of this shape. In Jewish surroundings it first appears in the synagogue of Capernaum (Kfar Nahum, 2nd c. B.C.). According to medieval mysticism, the two triangles can be interpreted on the basis of a Talmudic place (Avot 1, 2; 1, 18.). The triangle that points downwards represents the three divine pillars of the world: justice, law and peace. The other, "earthly" triangle symbolizes human "factors": the Torah, divine service and love. In Hungary it appeared on a flag that was born by the Jewish deputation which took part in the wedding of King Matthias and Beatrix (1476), and on the smaller (Sephardic) synagogue of Buda, above the entrance. It is common on later tombstones and synagogues. In the middle of Magen David the words "here lie" appear on a stone from Homonna, while on an other one from Piatra Neamt we can read "Zion".

4. Shofar: an instrument made of a ram's horn, blown for warning, summoning people, to mark the beginning and end of holidays and in case of death. It was also sounded when Moses was given the Commandments on Mount Sinai and when the walls of Jericho fell down. Now it is sounded in the synagogue at Rosh Hashanah (New Year) and Yom Kippur (the day of atonement). According to tradition, it will also signal the coming of the Messiah and the Resurrection. This is why it was often represented on tombstones.

5. Candle, candelabrum: symbols of several meanings. A candle (Hebrew ner) represents life and human spirit, after the well-known verse of Proverbs: "The spirit of man is the Lord's lamp" (20:27). It also symbolizes family life. Two-branched candelabra mean Sabbath, while five-branched ones refer to the Temple. The previous one accompanied by blessing hands mean the lighting of the candle on Friday evening (for instance, on a tombstone from Suceava). These symbols mainly appear on women's tombstones.

6. Blessing hands: raised hands, the four fingers closed, thumbs touch each other. This is how men of ecclesiastical family, from the clan of Aaron (Cohanites) bless the people of Israel in the synagogue - with the tallith raised over the head. This law, without describing the gesture, is in Numbers (6:23). A legendary explanation tells that God looks down from between the blessing hands of Cohanites (Midrash Shir Hashirim 2:9). This symbol only appears on Cohanites' tombstones. (Our pictures are from Zsujta, Bártfa, Varannó, etc.)

7. Jug: refers to the Levitic ancestry of the "owner" of the tombstone. According to the Mosaic law, Levites (of the tribe of Levi) did not get land, but they were in charge of administrative tasks. At the same time they were assistants to the Temple priests. It is their duty up to the present to rinse the hands of the Cohanites before blessing. The jug, and sometimes the gesture, refers to this. (Cracow, Prague, Homonna, Piatra Neamt).

8. Crown (Hebrew keter): an other symbol with several meanings. The most frequent ones are knowledge or illustrious descent. The Talmud tells about three crowns: "the crown of the Torah, the crown of priesthood and the crown of the king. But the crown of Good News outshine all of them" (Avot 4, 17). It can also symbolize marital faithfulness. The finest representation among our photos is from Abaújszántó.

9. Open bookcase: a symbol of wisdom. Appears on tombstones of learned men, sometimes with a crown (of the Torah). This symbol can be found mostly in cemeteries of Moldavia (e.g. in Piatra Neamt).

10. Column and house: refer to exemplary family life or devotion to the synagogue. In Hebrew, a lectern is called 'column'. In this book we can see them in photos from Cracow and Prague.

11. Tablets of the Law: the two stone tablets with the ten Commandments, five on each. The first tablet contained laws of the relationship of God and man (religious laws), while the second five commandments on the second tablet dealt with the relationship of man and man (social and moral laws). They often appear on the facades of synagogues. On tombstones they symbolize devotion to religious laws. Sometimes the stone itself (especially spouses' tombstones) takes the shape of the Mosaic tablets (see one of the photos from Prague).

12. Tent (Hebrew ohel): mostly the equivalent of the Mosaic Tent of Meeting. The Talmud says that good deeds of just men protect us like a tent. This is why in Chassidic communities graves of rabbis resemble a tent, or, as in Cracow, a tent-motif is carved on the tombstone.

13. Heart (Hebrew leu): usually the symbol of goodwill. A parable of the Talmud tells that Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai (1st c. A.D.) asked five of his eminent disciples about the supreme good that one should adhere to. A good friend, a good neighbour, eyes free from envy, prudence, they answered. The fifth disciple said: warm heart. The master agreed with him: everything else arises from this (Avot 2, 13.). It can also symbolize conscientiousness and charity. "Faithful man with worthy soul", we read on a gravestone decorated with a heart (Abaújszántó).

14. Shield (Hebrew magen): the symbol of intrinsic human values. In Judaism the merits of the ancestors protect descendants like a shield. Combined with a crown it resembles the breastplate of high priests (hoshen), thus referring to the Cohanite origin of the deceased. In one of our pictures it can be seen with the word 'Zion' and two lions (Cracow).

15. Torah-curtain (Hebrew parochet): a curtain covering the tabernacle of the synagogue. It is drawn apart at Torah-reading, main prayers and on holidays. It is the symbol of religious life. According to the Talmud and the daily prayer of atonement, human life is an open book to God, in which we write our deeds with our own hands. God reveals them and decides on our fate. The symbol appears in Abaújszántó.

II. ANIMAL AND VEGETAL SYMBOLS

1. Lion (Hebrew aryeh): a very common symbol of fidelity and religious perseverance. This was based on a Talmudic sentence: "Be strong like a panther, light as an eagle, fast as a deer and courageous like a lion, so as to be able to fulfil the wish of your Father" (Avot 5, 23.). It is the heraldic animal of the tribe of Judah and of David's dynasty, so it is a general Judaic symbol. Two lions on the two sides of a crown or the stone tablets represent the defence of the Torah. Apart from these, the lion on a tombstone may refer to the Hebrew or Yiddish surname (Lövy, Löwenberg, Löwisohn, etc.) or given name (Judah, Aryeh, Leb, Löw, etc.) of the deceased.

2. Deer (Hebrew zvi, ayal): an other symbol based on the above-mentioned Talmudic quotation and on Biblical similes (e.g. Psalm 42:1-2.). As a heraldic animal, it can refer to first names (Naphtali, Zvi, Hirsh, Hersh) or to surnames (Hirsch, Hirschl, Herzl, etc.)

3. Eagle (Hebrew nesher): also from the above simile. It can also hint at family names (e.g. Adler). Sometimes it is a symbol of a mother protecting her family: "like an eagle that stirs up its nest and hovers over its young, that spreads its wings to catch them and carries them on its pinions" (Deuteronomy 32:11).

4. Dove (Hebrew yonah): the symbol of gentleness and religious zeal (c.f. Isaiah 38:14) and also of female beauty (Song of Songs). A well-known Yiddish women's forename (Taube, Toybe) can be traced back to it. It appears almost exclusively on women's gravestones (e.g. in Cimpulung Moldovenesc).

5. Cat: an occurence on a stone in Olaszliszka may be connected with the family name Katz. The female forename Hulda means 'wild cat' or 'weasel'.

6. Winged horse: the origin of this symbol, which can be found in Piatra Neamt (Moldavia), is unknown, probably foreign.

7. Cluster of grapes, grapevine (Hebrew eshkol, ghefen): two of the ancient symbols of the land people of Israel (c.f. Psalm 80:9). They are of extreme significance for religious ceremonies, this is why they are also the symbols of devotion. They can also refer to family life after a verse of Psalm 128: "Your wife will be like a fruitful wine within your house". Clusters of grapes can be seen on mosaic floors of some synagogues from the Roman period, as well as on the tabernacle of the medieval synagogue in Sopron.

8. Pomegranate (Hebrew rimon): an other ancient symbol of Israel and Judaism, an important product of the country. The ornaments on the top of the Torah-scrolls are also called pomegranates (rimonim), this is why, secondarily, it also means religious devotion. It occurs on Cracow tombstones in this meaning.

9. Weeping willow: a general symbol of sorrow and mourning. As a Jewish symbol, it is included in the ceremonial bunch of the autumn holiday season. Our picture was taken in the cemetery of Kassa. In Hungary it often appears, mainly on women's gravestones.

10. Palm: also a component of the autumn ceremonial bunch (at Succoth, the festival of the tents). As a symbol, it refers to steadfastness, endurance, strong character, and even to the righteous man. In the well-known Sabbath Psalm we read: "The righteous will flourish like a palm tree" (Psalm 92:12). Splendid palm-trees can be seen on the tombstone of Rabbi Nathan Noteh ben Shlomo Shpira of Cracow (died 1633). The epitaph reveals that he allegedly "spoke to Prophet Elijah face to face". A palm-tree or a candlestick broken in two means the tragedy of sudden death.

11. Different vegetal motifs and vases can be seen mainly on modern monuments, like on the burial chamber of the Schmidl family (Kozma Street, Budapest), in Abaújszántó and in Cracow. They are manifestations, symbols of reverence. There is one example in Cracow, a motif resembling a headpost (presumably a bud) that would deserve special attention.

III. HEBREW ABBREVIATIONS

The Hebrew equivalent of "letter" (oth) has a twofold meaning: beside 'letter' it also means 'sign', 'symbol', even a magic one. Indeed, in Hebrew writing (which is a consonantal alphabetic writing) letters have preserved their ancient symbolic meaning. Moreover, each letter has a name that is a word in itself (aleph=ox, beth=house, gimel=camel, etc.), and they also represent numbers. Contractions, abbreviations, sometimes can have independent meanings. This was the basis for the medieval mystique of letters and numbers. On tombstones we can find the following abbreviations:

1. P.N. - meaning: poh nitman = 'hidden (i.e. buried) here', the Hebrew equivalent of Latin hic iacet and Greek enthade keitai. The formula existed in the ancient times. In a picture of this book there appears a version, P.T. (Pilisvörösvár). It means: poh tamun, the same as the above. Obviously, the unabbreviated version is also in use, for instance, in Cracow.

2. L.P.(F.)K. - (pronounced as l'fak) - meaning: lifrath katan = 'according to the "small calendar"'. It appears after the date of death (e.g. in Göncruszka). The five thousandth year of the Hebrew calendar is equal with 1239/40 of the Christian calendar. So 1985 corresponds to the 5745th Jewish year. But thousands are usually not marked: this is the "small calendar". Practically: instead of the above year, 745 is written, naturally, with Hebrew letter-figure, and they add: "according to the small calendar". On a tombstone of Homonna we can see a playful contraction of the above letters.

3. T.N.C.B.(V.)H. - (pronounced as tantz'vah) - meaning: t'hi naphshoh tzrurah bitzror chahcayim = 'be his soul bound in the bundle of the living'. It is a common closing formula on Jewish tombstones, wishing everlasting life for the memory of the deceased. The expression preserves a long forgotten custom that was used by shepherds to record the number of animals: they kept as many pebbles in "the bundle of the living" as many sheep they had in the herd. It also occurs in the Biblical story of David: "the life of my master will be bound surely in the bundle of the living by the Lord your God" (1 Samuel 25:29), meaning 'let him have a long life'.

Tamás Raj

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

In this Introduction we intended to use primary sources. However, we feel the need to enlist the most important secondary sources of reference.

Erdélyi, Lajos: Régi zsidótemetők mûvészete ('The Art of Old Jewish Cemeteries') Bucharest, 1980.

Halász, Nathan: Kegyelet forrása. Orah kol adam. Budapest, 1902.

Herman, Jan: Jewish Cemeteries in Bohemia and Moravia. Prague, 1980.

Jerábek, Lubomir: Der alte prager Judenfriedhof. Prague, 1903.

Kálmán, Ödön: A rabbi könyve ('The Book of Rabbis') Budapest, 1940.

Kunt, Ernő: Temetők népművészete ('Folk Art of Cemeteries') Budapest, 1983.

Scheiber, Alexander: Jewish Inscriptions in Hungary. Budapest-Leiden, 1983.

Scheiber, Sándor: Hegyaljai zsidó sírkövek ('Jewish Tombstones in Hegyalja') (Herman Ottó Múzeum Évkönyve XXI. pp. 177-194.) Miskolc, 1982.

Wachstein, Bernhard: Die Grabinschriften des alten Judenfriedhofes in Eisenstadt. Vienna, 1922.

Weiss Sámuel: Avne beth chayotzer... b'veth chachayim chayasan Pressburg. Paks, 1900.

Wischnitzer-Bernstein, R.: Symbole und Gestalten in der jüdischen Kunst. Berlin-Schöneberg, 1935.

Translator's note: Biblical quotations and references are to: The Holy Bible. New International Version. International Bible Society, 1973, 1984.